VPN Transparency Project

Author: WhoVPN

  • Information War: The Battle For Control Over Our Data

    Information War: The Battle For Control Over Our Data

    We are engaged in an Information War for control over our most private and intimate details. On one side are the data extractors – the tech giants, advertisers, data brokers and other entities that see our personal information as a commodity to be collected, profiled, packaged and sold. Their aim is to vacuum up every byte of data about our online habits, location history, relationships, interests and more to feed the insatiable maw of the surveillance economy.

    The technocratic push to erode encryption and privacy is palpable in recent governmental actions across the globe. The UK’s Online Safety Bill, initially advocating for mandated content scanning on encrypted messaging platforms, witnessed a subtle shift owing to strong opposition, yet leaves room for potential erosion of encryption standards if ‘appropriate technology’ emerges. The US sees a persistent effort by the FBI to legislate against public key encryption, underscoring a technocratic inclination to control digital privacy for purported criminal investigation efficacy. Australia’s stance, unaltered by tech explanations, alongside the EU’s draft law aiming to combat online child abuse, reflects a growing technocratic endeavor to penetrate encryption protocols. The surveillance accusations against Russia and Azerbaijan, and Spain’s push for encryption restrictions in the EU, further exemplify the technocratic drive, veering away from preserving individual privacy and encryption against authoritative oversight.

    For them, our digital lives are an open book from which they can continuously read, analyze and profit. Through deceptive terms of service agreements and lobbying, they seek to normalize ever more intrusive forms of surveillance capitalism and weaken our laws to protect civil liberties online. Their goal is total information awareness – to know us better than we know ourselves and have unfettered access to monitor, aggregate and sell the minutiae of our daily digital footprints.

    But there are those of us who believe our personal information belongs to us alone, not to be captured and traded without our consent. We understand that our data, when pieced together, paints an extremely detailed portrait of our lives, thoughts and associations that many would rather keep private or share selectively on their own terms. We reject the notion that privacy must be relinquished in exchange for using modern technologies and services.

    So for us, defending privacy is not about hiding illicit activities but exercising autonomy, ownership and free will in an era when digital surveillance has become big business. Like guerrilla fighters, we employ countermeasures like encryption, anonymity networks and strategic deception to evade mass data collection, cloud our movements online and retain ownership over our identities. While the data extractors have money and lobbying power on their side, we have motivation, technical know-how and the strength of fighting for self-determination.

    When we securely encrypt our digital communications and store our sensitive data in encrypted formats, we are doing nothing different than locking the front door of our home. In both cases, we are exercising our natural right to privacy and protecting ourselves from unwanted intrusions. Just as we do not want strangers wandering freely throughout our house, rummaging through our personal belongings, we also do not want governments or other untrusted third parties surveillance our private online activities and data caches. Encryption allows us to privately transact, associate and express ourselves in the digital realm without worrying about others spying on us or stealing our personal information. It creates a protected space online that respects civil liberties, much like the home provides a private physical space for all individuals.

    This is an asymmetric war for control of the narratives and profiles being created about us from beyond the subjective experiences we share directly with others. Will our digital lives be open books for others to profit from without consent? Or can we wrest back power and retain authority over the most sensitive domains of how we express ourselves and who we choose to be through technology? The outcome will determine how privacy, autonomy and transparency are balanced for generations to come. This is an Information War for our digital self-sovereignty and civil liberties facing powerful forces that see us as commodities instead of individuals. Ours is a battle that must be fought through both technical countermeasures and political change.

    See also:

  • Performive

    Performive, previously known as Total Server Solutions (August 2020), specializes in partnering with growing Mid-sized companies by delivering secure, VMware-based cloud and security solutions, along with on-demand engineering resources and 24/7/365 Devoted Customer Support. Their infrastructure portfolio has expanded offering fully managed cloud, data protection and security solutions. With 20 data center locations across the globe, medium-sized businesses now have the global reach they need to deliver quickly and operate with efficiency.

    Performive leases IPs from the same subnet as LogicWeb and PacketHub. Depending on which server you are using, your ISP may show up as any of them.

    About 2.43% of the 20,000+ VPN servers we tested are run by Performive, LLC.

    Is Performive a VPN?

    While Performive, LLC does not directly provide VPN services, their extensive geographic infrastructure and high level of reliability make them a popular choice for VPN providers to lease from. Performive’s data centers are located in multiple locations throughout the United States, as well as in Europe and Asia, providing VPN providers with a broad range of locations to choose from when routing their users’ traffic. Furthermore, Performive’s infrastructure is known for its robustness and dependability, which is critical for VPN providers looking to ensure the privacy and security of their users’ data. The combination of Performive’s diverse geographic presence and rock-solid infrastructure makes them an ideal partner for VPN providers seeking a dependable platform to build their services on.

  • Venn Diagrams and Set Operations

    Venn diagrams are visual representations used to show the relationships between different sets. These diagrams are invaluable tools for understanding complex interactions, especially in cybersecurity where understanding relationships between network domains is crucial. In this guide, we’ll cover key set operations like Union, Intersection, Absolute Complement, Relative Complement, and Symmetric Difference. We’ll also talk about the order of operations for combining these set operators.

    Basic Set Operations

    Union (Inclusive OR, ∪)

    The Union operation combines elements from both sets. If you imagine two circles in a Venn diagram, the Union would be all the areas covered by either of the circles.

    Example: If Set A has firewall rules that allow traffic from specific IP addresses, and Set B has a different list of IP addresses, the Union would include all allowed IP addresses from both sets.

    Intersection (AND, ∩)

    The Intersection consists of elements that are common to both sets. In a Venn diagram, it’s the area where the circles overlap.

    Example: If Set A represents servers compliant with Security Policy X, and Set B represents servers running Linux, the Intersection would be the Linux servers that are also compliant with Security Policy X.

    Absolute Complement (NOT, A)

    The Absolute Complement consists of elements that are in the universal set but not in the given set.

    Example: If Set A is a list of compromised IP addresses, then the Absolute Complement would be all IP addresses that are not compromised.

    Relative Complement ()

    The Relative Complement consists of elements that are in one set but not in the other.

    Example: If Set A is all network domains you trust, and Set B is network domains that have been flagged for suspicious activity, then the Relative Complement of A and B would be the trusted domains that have not been flagged.

    Symmetric Difference (Exclusive OR, ⊕)

    The Symmetric Difference consists of elements that are in either of the sets, but not in their intersection.

    Example: If Set A represents admin users and Set B represents users with two-factor authentication enabled, then the Symmetric Difference would be the users who are either just admins or just have two-factor authentication, but not both.

    Order of Operations

    When combining set operators to represent complex relationships, the order of operations is:

    1. Operations within parentheses
    2. Absolute Complement (AC)
    3. Union (∪), Intersection (∩), Relative Complement (), and Symmetric Difference (⊕)

    Example: Compound Set Notation

    In an expression like A∩B, you would first find the Absolute Complement of B, and then find the Intersection with A.

    Application in Cybersecurity

    Trust Relationships Between Network Domains

    Venn diagrams are useful for analyzing trust relationships between network domains. For example, the Intersection of two domains could represent a secure communication channel that both share.

    Limitations

    Venn diagrams are not useful for analyzing which system resources are available in each domain. For resource allocation or availability, other models and tools would be more appropriate.

    By understanding these concepts, junior cyberanalysts will be better equipped to analyze complex relationships, evaluate network security, and make informed decisions.

  • Operations Involving Relations

    Operations Involving Relations: A Junior Cyberanalysis Learning Guide

    What are Relations?

    In its simplest form, a relation is a connection between elements in different sets or within the same set. Think of it like a friendship network on social media. Each person (element) is connected (related) to friends (other elements) in some way.

    In the world of databases, for example, relations can define how different tables (sets) are linked. Understanding these relations can help you optimize queries or even uncover hidden patterns, which is crucial in data analysis for cybersecurity.

    Reflexive Relations

    A reflexive relation is like a mirror selfie; every element is related to itself. In a network, this could mean that every node has a return path to itself. Why does this matter? Well, in the context of network security, understanding reflexive relations can help you identify possible points of data leakage or unauthorized access.

    Symmetric Relations

    If a relation is symmetric, it’s like a handshake; if Person A knows Person B, then Person B also knows Person A. In networking terms, if there’s a data path from Node A to Node B, there’s also a path from Node B to Node A. Recognizing these symmetrical relations can be helpful in network traffic analysis. If the traffic flow is expected to be symmetric but suddenly isn’t, it might indicate a security issue.

    Transitive Relations

    Transitive relations are like the friend-of-a-friend concept. If Node A can reach Node B, and Node B can reach Node C, then Node A should be able to reach Node C. This property is crucial in routing algorithms and therefore essential to understand for securing network pathways.

    Quiz Questions

    1. What does it mean for a relation to be reflexive?
      • a) Every element is related to at least one other element.
      • b) Every element is related to itself.
      • c) If an element A is related to an element B, then B is also related to A.
      • d) If A is related to B and B is related to C, then A is related to C.
    2. In a symmetric relation, which of the following must be true?
      • a) Every node has a return path to itself.
      • b) If A is related to B, then B must also be related to A.
      • c) If A is related to B, and B is related to C, then A must be related to C.
      • d) Every output value must have at least one corresponding input value.
    3. Which type of relation is important for routing algorithms in networks?
      • a) Reflexive
      • b) Symmetric
      • c) Transitive
      • d) None of the above

    Answers

    By understanding these fundamental concepts related to relations, you’ll be better equipped to analyze complex systems and networks. Whether you’re looking into database structures or trying to secure a multi-node network, these principles will give you the foundational knowledge you need to excel in your role as a junior cyberanalyst.

  • Operations Associated with Functions

    1.7 Operations Associated with Functions

    In the world of functions, there are three major properties you’ll often hear about:

    1. One-to-One (Injection)
    2. Onto (Surjection)
    3. Invertible (Bijection)

    One-to-One (Injection)

    A function \( g: B \to C \) is said to be a one-to-one (injection) function if each element in the domain has a UNIQUE image value. Think of a one-to-one function like a personal locker at the gym. Each person (element in the domain) has their own locker (image value), and no two people share a locker. In other words, every input is linked to a unique output. This is important in cryptography; you don’t want two different messages to generate the same encrypted output.

    Onto (Surjection)

    Imagine a school bus picking up students and dropping them at various classes. An ‘onto’ function is like making sure every classroom receives at least one student. That is, every output value (codomain) should have at least one corresponding input value. This is crucial in network design to ensure every endpoint can be reached.

    Invertible (Bijection)

    Invertible functions are the superheroes of the function world. They’re both one-to-one and onto, which means they can be reversed. It’s like having a reversible jacket; you can wear it inside out (inverse), and it still functions as a jacket. In cryptography, this property is essential for secure data encryption and decryption.

    Examples

    Let’s say we have a function \( h \) defined as:
    $$ h = \{(r, 6), (s, 8), (t, 9), (u, 7)\} $$

    The inverse of this function would be:

    $$ h^{-1} = \{(6, r), (8, s), (9, t), (7, u)\} $$

    In the given context, you might have to identify these properties for different functions \( f \), \( g \), \( h \), and \( i \).

    • Properties of ( f ): Is it a Function? Is it One-to-One? Is it Onto? Is it Invertible?
    • Properties of ( g ): Is it a Function? Is it One-to-One? Is it Onto? Is it Invertible?
    • Properties of ( h ): Is it a Function? Is it One-to-One? Is it Onto? Is it Invertible?
    • Properties of ( i ): Is it a Function? Is it One-to-One? Is it Onto? Is it Invertible?

    Understanding these function properties will help you get a better grasp on things like data mappings, encryption algorithms, and network pathways. It’s fundamental knowledge that you’ll find incredibly useful as you dive deeper into cyberanalysis.

  • Basics of Counting

    In the field of discrete structures, counting serves as a fundamental concept that underpins various areas of study, including computer science, cryptography, and network design. Utilizing principles such as the Fundamental Counting Principle, permutations, combinations, and the Pigeonhole Principle, counting in discrete structures provides essential tools for calculating possibilities, assessing risks, and solving complex problems. From determining the strength of a password to optimizing network configurations, these counting methods offer invaluable insights for both theoretical analysis and practical applications.

    Counting Arguments

    Counting in discrete structures often revolves around two main rules: the sum rule and the product rule.

    Sum Rule

    The sum rule is like choosing between two different dishes at a restaurant. You can have either the pasta or the steak, but not both at the same time. In programming, this kind of choice is often represented by a conditional statement using if-else constructs.

    Example 1: A hacker has a choice between two types of exploits: 4 for DCOM and 3 for SMB over IP. The hacker can only choose one. So, the total number of choices is 4+3=7.

    Example 2: If you want to ensure drawing 3 spades from a deck, you’d have to remove all the other suits first. It’s like wanting only green M&Ms and having to remove all the other colors first. In this case, you’d have to draw 42 cards to ensure the next 3 are spades.

    Product Rule

    The product rule is like creating a custom sandwich. You pick the bread, the meat, and the toppings, and each choice multiplies your options.

    Example 1: Both Apple and Android have a 6-digit passcode. Each digit can be 0-9, offering 10 choices per digit. Think of it as having 10 types of bread, 10 types of meat, and so on, for 6 layers. The total combinations would be 106=1,000,000.

    Example 2: Passwords with exactly two uppercase letters and four numbers. It’s like having 26 choices of bread and meat (uppercase letters) and 10 choices of four different toppings (numbers). The total combinations would be 26×26×10×10×10×10=6,760,000.

    Security Implications

    Brute-force attacks are like trying every possible sandwich combination until you find the one that someone else has ordered. The more complex the “recipe” (password), the longer it will take to guess it. That’s why organizations prefer complex passwords, which in the world of counting, means a larger set of possibilities, making brute-force attacks less effective.

    And there you have it, the basics of counting in the context of discrete structures and its importance in cybersecurity. Understanding these fundamental principles is crucial for things like risk assessment and cryptographic strength.

    Pigeonhole Principle

    The Pigeonhole Principle itself is more of a logical statement than a formula, but you can certainly use calculations to illustrate or apply the principle. The basic idea is that if you have \( n \) items and \( m \) containers, and \( n > m \), then at least one container must contain more than one item.

    In many applications, you’ll use this principle to make a calculation or estimation. For example:

    Example 1: Password Collision in Hashing

    Suppose a hashing algorithm produces a 16-bit hash, which means there are \( 2^{16} \) possible hash values. If you hash \( 2^{16} + 1 \) different passwords, you can be certain that at least two of these passwords will produce the same hash value due to the Pigeonhole Principle. Here, \( n = 2^{16} + 1 \) and \( m = 2^{16} \), and since \( n > m \), a collision is guaranteed.

    Example 2: IP Address Allocation

    If you have a subnet with \( m = 254 \) usable IP addresses and \( n = 255 \) devices, then by the Pigeonhole Principle, at least one IP address must be shared by at least two devices. The calculation here is straightforward: \( n > m \).

    Example 3: Finding Duplicate Elements in an Array

    Say you have an array of size \( m \) containing integers between 1 and \( n \), where \( m > n \). By the Pigeonhole Principle, you can say that there must be at least one integer that appears more than once in the array.

    In this case, the principle guides you toward the conclusion without needing to manually check every possibility, saving computational effort and time.

    Example 4: Birthday Paradox

    The famous Birthday Paradox says that in a group of just 23 people, there’s a better than even chance that at least two people share the same birthday. This is an application of the Pigeonhole Principle, where \( m = 365 \) days and \( n = 23 \) people. The calculations for the exact probability are a bit more involved but rooted in the Pigeonhole Principle.

    Closing Thoughts

    Having explored into the foundational aspects of counting in discrete structures, you’ve gained an understanding of key principles such as the Fundamental Counting Principle, permutations, combinations, the sum and product rules, and the Pigeonhole Principle. These principles not only provide theoretical insights but also have immediate, practical applications, especially in the realm of cybersecurity. You’re now equipped with the essential tools to calculate the number of possibilities in various scenarios, assess the strength and weaknesses of cryptographic systems, evaluate the risks associated with different network configurations, and even understand the likelihood of events in probabilistic models. This knowledge serves as both a theoretical foundation and a practical skill set that can be applied to solve complex problems in computer science, cryptography, and network security, among other fields. Armed with these counting methods, you’re better prepared to tackle the complexities and challenges that come with the fast-evolving landscape of technology and cybersecurity.

    See also:

  • Using Digital Ocean or Vultr to torrent? Don’t count on it.

    Using Digital Ocean or Vultr to torrent? Don’t count on it.

    In recent years, the digital realm has witnessed a surge in the usage of Virtual Private Networks (VPNs), owing to their ability to offer an enhanced level of privacy and security. However, the hosting landscape for these VPN services, particularly on cloud Virtual Private Server (VPS) providers like DigitalOcean and Vultr, presents a set of challenges that are worth examining, especially in the light of stringent copyright infringement policies.

    DigitalOcean and Vultr are among the preferred choices for hosting VPN services due to their robust infrastructure. However, their strong stance against copyright infringement could potentially impact the VPN services hosted on their platforms. DigitalOcean’s Acceptable Use Policy explicitly mentions a prohibition against using their services in a manner that infringes on intellectual property or proprietary rights, including copyrights. Similarly, although the detailed policy couldn’t be accessed, Vultr also has a policy in place against copyright infringement.

    A noteworthy point of discussion is the procedure followed by these providers in case of a Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) complaint. DigitalOcean, for instance, has a structured approach towards handling DMCA complaints. Upon receipt of a DMCA complaint, DigitalOcean forwards it to the concerned user, requesting immediate corrective action. Failure to comply or a continuation in accumulating DMCA notices could lead to account termination. This procedural transparency extends to legal orders as well, with DigitalOcean releasing a bi-annual transparency report shedding light on the types of requests received and their respective outcomes.

    The implications of these policies are far-reaching for VPN service providers and their users. If a VPN service hosted on DigitalOcean or Vultr is utilized for torrenting copyrighted materials, the service might receive DMCA complaints. A continued accumulation of such complaints could result in the termination of the VPN service account, disrupting the service for all its users.

    The Right Tool For The Right Job

    For individuals and entities whose primary online activity revolves around Peer-to-Peer (P2P) sharing or torrenting, the choice of a VPN service can significantly impact their experience. While cloud VPS providers like DigitalOcean and Vultr offer a robust infrastructure, their strict adherence to copyright infringement policies may pose hurdles. Especially when it comes to handling DMCA complaints, the policies of these providers could potentially lead to service disruptions or account terminations if misused for torrenting copyrighted materials.

    Given this scenario, exploring alternative solutions that align better with P2P/torrenting priorities becomes imperative. Here are a couple of alternatives that provide a conducive environment for such activities while minimizing the risk of policy infringements:

    1. Dedicated Seedboxes:
      • A dedicated seedbox is a private server primarily used for uploading and downloading digital files at high speeds. With a dedicated seedbox, users enjoy an added layer of anonymity, which is crucial for P2P sharing and torrenting activities.
      • Besides high-speed data transfers, seedboxes provide a buffer against DMCA complaints and copyright infringement issues as they are often hosted in countries with lenient copyright enforcement laws. This geographic advantage makes seedboxes a reliable alternative for avid torrenters.
    2. Jurisdiction-friendly VPN Providers:
      • Not all VPN providers are created equal, especially when it comes to handling DMCA requests. Some VPN providers operate under jurisdictions that do not adhere to DMCA requests, thereby offering a haven for P2P sharing and torrenting activities.
      • These VPN providers often have a no-logs policy, ensuring that user activities are not tracked, logged, or shared. This policy, coupled with a jurisdiction indifferent to DMCA requests, creates a conducive environment for P2P/torrenting while providing the necessary cloak of privacy and security.

    In weaving through the digital maze, the importance of aligning one’s primary online activities with the chosen hosting solution cannot be overstated. For individuals whose digital footprint is heavily skewed towards P2P sharing and torrenting, dedicated seedboxes or jurisdiction-friendly VPN providers emerge as viable alternatives. These alternatives not only foster a favorable environment for P2P/torrenting but also act as bulwarks against potential legal complications arising from DMCA complaints and copyright infringement policies.

    In conclusion, the robust infrastructure of cloud VPS providers like DigitalOcean and Vultr undeniably stands as a reliable backbone for hosting VPN services. However, the stringent copyright infringement policies and the procedural handling of DMCA complaints introduce a nuanced layer of complexity. It’s imperative for VPN service providers and users to thoroughly comprehend these policies to ensure a seamless service experience and adherence to the legal framework. As we venture further into the digital age, the narrative interweaving legal compliance and digital privacy continues to unfold. This ever-evolving dialogue in the digital hosting arena accentuates the need for well-informed decisions, fostering a deeper understanding of the intertwined legal and operational facets that come into play.

    See also:

  • SkyVPN

    SkyVPN is a freemium and ad-supported VPN service provided by Hong Kong based SkyVPN, Inc. They are part of an ever growing list of free VPNs owned and operated by pop up corporations with strong links to China which is a huge privacy and security concern.

    The app features numerous outbound connections to third party services which are always a massive privacy concern. Some of the hosts most frequently connected to were:

    • adcolony.com
    • adtilt.com
    • applovin.com
    • pangle.io
    • tapjoy.com
    • doubleclick.net
    • byteoversea.com
    • googleapis.com
    • moatads.com

    Some third party connections are inevitable, specifically to services like payment processors or the iOS app store, but the above connections demonstrate a clear attempt to monitor and track the individual using their app.

    Speeds

    Speed loss and increased latency are common amongst all VPN services, but severe drop in speed or spike in latency is an indication that the service is being oversold or intentionally throttled. Since with SkyVPN you can only select your country of choice, the proximity of the selected server is random. I was able to connect to New Jersey which is about 1,200 miles away. While the latency was decent, the download speed was throttled to 18Mbps. For contrast, while connected to a ProtonVPN server in New York City, I was able to maintain 274Mbps down with similar latency. So, obviously your mileage will vary, and the speed required will depend heavily on your VPN usage.

    See also:

  • Tzulo

    Tzulo, Inc., identified by its Autonomous System Number (ASN) 11878, is a company engaged in the provision of web hosting services, encompassing colocation, dedicated servers, cloud/virtual servers, and managed hosting services. The company is situated at 427 South LaSalle Street, Suite 405, Chicago, IL, 60605, United States, and has established a notable presence in the web hosting arena since its registry was last assigned on April 2, 2007​1​. The network under ASN 11878 has been allocated a significant number of IP addresses, with 126,459 total IPv4 addresses, encompassing 111 IPv4 prefixes and 19 IPv6 prefixes​2​.

    What VPNs use Tzulo infrastructure?

    VPNTotal IPs
    Mullvad299
    Not Anonymous263
    Windscribe16
    AirVPN2
    Bitdefender1
    Kaspersky VPN1
    IVPN1
    Deeper Network VPN and Mullvad VPN1

    The network’s IP addresses are assigned by the American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN), which is the regional internet registry (RIR) for North American IP addresses​3​. Within the network, a BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) structure has been established, and the network is 16 years old in terms of BGP, peering with 5 other networks and having 4 upstream carriers. The network has set up a route server and looking glass URL for enhanced network transparency and troubleshooting​4​​5​. Tzulo, Inc., through ASN 11878, has thus carved out a niche for itself in the web hosting industry, leveraging its network resources to offer a range of hosting services to its clientele.

    See also:

  • Zenlayer Inc

    Zenlayer Inc, identified by its Autonomous System Number (ASN) 21859, is a company with a focus on improving global digital user experiences through its on-demand edge cloud services. Since its inception in 2014, Zenlayer has rapidly expanded its global footprint, boasting over 290 Points of Presence (PoPs) around the world, particularly in burgeoning markets such as Southeast Asia, South America, the Middle East, and Africa. Through its edge cloud platform, businesses are empowered to enhance digital experiences for their users by leveraging ultra-low latency and worldwide connectivity on demand​1​.

    What VPNs use Zenlayer?

    According to our in house research, Zenlayer is currently used by Privado VPN, Bitdefender, X-VPN, and VPN Proxy Master.

    Zenlayer VPN IP Ranges

    CountrySubnetTotal_IPs
    Indonesia129.227.46.0/242
    Japan156.59.24.0/242
    Malaysia129.227.241.0/241
    Philippines129.227.103.0/242
    Qatar209.151.151.0/241
    Taiwan129.227.49.0/244
    United Kingdom193.118.58.0/241
    United States98.96.202.0/244
    United States128.14.18.0/242
    United States23.236.116.0/242
    United States128.14.181.0/241
    United States169.197.124.0/241
    United States23.251.113.0/241
    United States98.98.252.0/241

    On a technical front, the registry for ASN 21859 was officially established on April 2, 2013, under the jurisdiction of the American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN). The network has since been active and is comprised of 1184 IPv4 and 126 IPv6 originated prefixes. Zenlayer Inc’s network is not isolated but is part of a larger interconnected web, with upstream networks including NTT America, Inc. (AS2914), Arelion (AS1299), Lumen (AS3356), PCCW Global, Inc. (AS3491), TATA Communications (America) Inc. (AS6453), and Zenlayer Inc itself (AS4229)​2​​3​.

    The company operates under the name ZEN-ECN, with its organizational identifier being ZENLA-7. The latest update to the registry was made on July 17, 2021, and the organization’s contact address is listed as 21680 Gateway Center Dr. Suite 350, Diamond Bar, CA, US, 91765​2​.

    Zenlayer Inc has charted a course of providing innovative solutions in the realm of Software-Defined Networking (SDN) based technology. Its offerings encompass a global connection platform comprising bare metal cloud, SD-WAN, and edge computing services. This platform facilitates clients to swiftly deploy and manage information technology resources worldwide, thus contributing to a global digital ecosystem conducive to business operations and user satisfaction​4​.

    In summary, Zenlayer Inc, through ASN 21859, exemplifies a progressive venture in harnessing edge cloud technology to foster enhanced digital experiences across the globe. Its network infrastructure, delineated by ASN 21859, is an active participant in the global network community, engaging with multiple upstream networks to ensure a robust and reliable connectivity framework.

    See also: